Efficacy of Alternative Insecticides against Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus laetus) to Improve Yield Losses in Cotton Crops through Residue-based Bioassay

Abstract

The study evaluates the efficacy of leufenuron, emamectin benzoate, and thiamethoxam against the Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus laetus Kirby) using residue-based bioassay methods. Key findings indicate that emamectin benzoate showed the highest efficacy with the lowest LC50 value, making it the most potent insecticide among those tested. Leufenuron and thiamethoxam followed, displaying moderate effectiveness. The results highlight the comparative advantages of emamectin benzoate in controlling Dusky Cotton Bug populations, suggesting its potential role in integrated pest management strategies. This study underscores the need for environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional insecticides in mitigating yield losses in cotton production.

Introduction

Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is a crucial cash crop in Pakistan, significantly contributing to the country's economy as a primary source of foreign exchange earnings [11Ali MA, Farooq J, Batool A, Zahoor A, Azeem F, Mahmood A, Jabran K. Cotton production in Pakistan. In: Cotton Production. 2019:249-76.]. It constitutes approximately 8.6% of the agricultural value added and about 1.8% of Pakistan's GDP [22Rehman A, Jingdong L, Chandio AA, Hussain I, Wagan SA, Memon QUA. Economic perspectives of cotton crop in Pakistan: A time series analysis (1970–2015) (Part 1). J Saudi Soc Agric Sci. 2019;18:49-54.-44Voora V, Larrea C, Bermudez S. Global market report: cotton. JSTOR; 2020.]. As the fourth-largest cotton producer and the third-largest exporter of raw cotton globally [55Khan MA, Wahid A, Ahmad M, Tahir MT, Ahmed M, Ahmad S, Hasanuzzaman M. World cotton production and consumption: An overview. In: Cotton Production and Uses: Agronomy, Crop Protection, and Postharvest Technologies. 2020:1-7.], Pakistan plays a vital role in the international cotton market [66Niazi R, Nizami U. Cotton export potential: A case study of Pakistan. J Econ Sustain Dev. 2015;6:2222-1700.]. The cotton and textile sectors together contribute approximately 11% to the GDP and nearly 60% to the country's total exports [22Rehman A, Jingdong L, Chandio AA, Hussain I, Wagan SA, Memon QUA. Economic perspectives of cotton crop in Pakistan: A time series analysis (1970–2015) (Part 1). J Saudi Soc Agric Sci. 2019;18:49-54.,77Wei W, Mushtaq Z, Ikram A, Faisal M, Wan-Li Z, Ahmad MI. Estimating the economic viability of cotton growers in Punjab Province, Pakistan. Sage Open. 2020;10:1-12.]. Furthermore, the cotton industry provides substantial employment opportunities across various stages of production [88Malicha W, Njoroge L. Assessing the cotton, textile and apparel sector employment potential in Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis; 2020.], from cultivation to textile manufacturing, thereby supporting the livelihoods of millions of people [99Fukunishi T, Yamagata T. Employment and wages in export-oriented garment industry: Recent trends in low-income countries under trade liberalization. Tokyo: Japan External Trade Organization (IDE-JETRO); 2013.,1010Kabish AK. Textile and clothing production and trading—the way to industrial economy development. Ethiop J Sci Technol. 2023;16:1-12.]. Despite its economic significance, cotton production in Pakistan is fraught with challenges [1111Husain MD, Farooq S, Siddiqui MOR, Khan DR. Textile dynamics in Pakistan: Unraveling the threads of production, consumption, and global competitiveness. In: Consumption and Production in the Textile and Garment Industry: A Comparative Study Among Asian Countries. Springer; 2024:33-58.], particularly from insect pests that can lead to devastating yield losses [1212Sharma S, Kooner R, Arora R. Insect pests and crop losses. In: Breeding Insect Resistant Crops for Sustainable Agriculture. 2017:45-66.]. Pest infestations can cause losses ranging from 40% to 70% [1313Bottrell DG, Adkisson PL. Cotton insect pest management. Annu Rev Entomol. 1977;22:451-81.-1515Quan Y, Wu K. Managing Practical Resistance of Lepidopteran Pests to Bt Cotton in China. Insects. 2023 Feb 10;14(2):179. doi: 10.3390/insects14020179. PMID: 36835748; PMCID: PMC9965927.], severely impacting both the quantity and quality of cotton produced [1616Tokel D, Dogan I, Hocaoglu-Ozyigit A, Ozyigit I.I. Cotton agriculture in Turkey and worldwide economic impacts of Turkish cotton. J Nat Fibers. 2022;19:10648-67.]. Among the most significant pests affecting cotton crops in Pakistan is the Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus laetus) [1717Ahmed R, Nadeem I, Yousaf MJ, Niaz T, Ali A, Ullah Z. Impact of dusky cotton bug (Oxycarenus laetus Kirby) on seed germination, lint color and seed weight in cotton crop. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2015;3:335-8.], which inflicts both quantitative and qualitative damage [1818Hameed AH, Shahzad MS, Mehmood AM, Ahmad SA, Noor-ul-Islam N.-u.-I. Forecasting and modeling of sucking insect complex of cotton under agro-ecosystem of Multan-Punjab, Pakistan. Pak J Agric Sci. 2014;51:1-7.]. The presence of O. laetus adversely affects fiber properties [1919Rajendran T, Birah A, Burange PS. Insect pests of cotton. In: Pests and Their Management. 2018:361-411.], resulting in substantial reductions in seed cotton weight, seed weight, and oil content, ultimately diminishing market value [1717Ahmed R, Nadeem I, Yousaf MJ, Niaz T, Ali A, Ullah Z. Impact of dusky cotton bug (Oxycarenus laetus Kirby) on seed germination, lint color and seed weight in cotton crop. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2015;3:335-8.]. Increased populations of O. laetus also negatively impact essential cotton quality attributes such as bundle strength [2020Mathangadeera RW, Hequet EF, Kelly B, Dever JK, Kelly CM. Importance of cotton fiber elongation in fiber processing. Ind Crops Prod. 2020;147:1-11.], span length, uniformity ratio, fineness, and micronaire values [2121Javaid M, Naeem-Ullah U, Khan WS, Saeed S, Qayyum MA, Khan MA. Characterization of Azadirachta indica synthesized silver nanoparticles and its toxicity against dusky cotton bug, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis Costa (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae). Int J Trop Insect Sci. 2023;43:463-73.].

Globally, cotton production is threatened by various other pests [2222Razaq M, Mensah R, Athar HuR. Insect pest management in cotton. In: Cotton Production. 2019:85-107.], including the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) [2323Riaz S, Johnson JB, Ahmad M, Fitt GP, Naiker M. A review on biological interactions and management of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). J Appl Entomol. 2021;145:467-98.], aphids (Aphis gossypii) [2424Morando R, da Silva IF, da Silva Santana A, Sampaio GSL, Lourenção AL, Baldin ELL. Assessing cotton genotypes for resistance to Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae). J Econ Entomol. 2021;114:387-96.], and whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) [2525Abubakar M, Koul B, Chandrashekar K, Raut A, Yadav D. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) management strategies for sustainable agriculture: a review. Agriculture. 2022;12:1-10.], which together contribute to significant crop damage []. Recent data indicate that the total world cotton production for 2022/2023 is approximately 24 million metric tons [2727Zhang Z, Huang J, Yao Y, Peters G, Macdonald B, La Rosa AD, Wang Z, Scherer L. Environmental impacts of cotton and opportunities for improvement. Nat Rev Earth Environ. 2023;4:703-15.], with average yield losses from pest infestations estimated at 10% - 20% in various regions (USDA, 2023) [2828Jha PK, Zhang N, Rijal JP, Parker LE, Ostoja S, Pathak TB. Climate change impacts on insect pests for high value specialty crops in California. Sci Total Environ. 2024;906:167605. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167605. Epub 2023 Oct 5. PMID: 37802357.]. These challenges underscore the necessity for innovative and sustainable pest management strategies.

The significance of addressing these pest challenges in Pakistan is critical for the country's agricultural sustainability and economic stability [2929Nawaz A, Sufyan M, Gogi MD, Javed MW. Sustainable management of insect-pests. In: Innovations in Sustainable Agriculture. 2019:287-335.]. Given the reliance on cotton for livelihoods, it is essential to explore environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional insecticides [3030Campos EV, Proença PL, Oliveira JL, Bakshi M, Abhilash P, Fraceto LF. Use of botanical insecticides for sustainable agriculture: Future perspectives. Ecol Indic. 2019;105:483-95.]. This study focuses on evaluating the efficacy of various insecticides, including the botanicals Azadirachta indica (neem) [3131Muhammad A, Kashere M. Neem, Azadirachta indica L.(A. Juss): an eco-friendly botanical insecticide for managing farmers’ insects pest problems—a review. FUDMA J Sci. 2020;4:484-91.], Eucalyptus camaldulensis (flooded gum) [3232Aleksic Sabo V, Knezevic P. Antimicrobial activity of Eucalyptus camaldulensis plant extracts and essential oils: A review. Ind Crops Prod. 2019 Jun;132:413-429. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.02.051. Epub 2019 Mar 5. PMID: 32288268; PMCID: PMC7126574.], Melia azedarach (chinaberry) [3333Dadé M, Zeinsteger P, Bozzolo F, Mestorino N. Repellent and Lethal Activities of Extracts From Fruits of Chinaberry (Melia azedarach, Meliaceae) Against Triatoma infestans. Front Vet Sci. 2018 Jul 26;5:158. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00158. PMID: 30094242; PMCID: PMC6070623.], and Colocynthis citrullus (bitter cucumber) [3434Ponsankar A, Sahayaraj K, Senthil-Nathan S, Vasantha-Srinivasan P, Karthi S, Thanigaivel A, Petchidurai G, Madasamy M, Hunter WB. Toxicity and developmental effect of cucurbitacin E from Citrullus colocynthis L. (Cucurbitales: Cucurbitaceae) against Spodoptera litura Fab. and a non-target earthworm Eisenia fetida Savigny. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2020 Jul;27(19):23390-23401. doi: 10.1007/s11356-019-04438-1. Epub 2019 Feb 8. PMID: 30734910.], as well as the synthetic insecticide Cypermethrin [3535Ullah M, Ullah F, Khan MA, Ahmad S, Jamil M, Sardar S, Tariq K, Ahmed N. Efficacy of various natural plant extracts and the synthetic insecticide cypermethrin 25EC against Leucinodes orbonalis and their impact on natural enemies in brinjal crop. Int J Trop Insect Sci. 2022;1-10.] against O. laetus to establish their lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) and assess their potential in managing Dusky Cotton Bug infestations [2121Javaid M, Naeem-Ullah U, Khan WS, Saeed S, Qayyum MA, Khan MA. Characterization of Azadirachta indica synthesized silver nanoparticles and its toxicity against dusky cotton bug, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis Costa (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae). Int J Trop Insect Sci. 2023;43:463-73.]. However, understanding these dynamics is vital for enhancing integrated pest management (IPM) practices, thereby ensuring sustainable agricultural development not only in Pakistan but also in other cotton-producing regions worldwide. By incorporating recent data on cotton production, pest-related crop damage, and insights from diverse locations, this research contributes valuable information that can inform effective pest management strategies and reinforce the importance of collaborative efforts in combating agricultural pests.

Materials and methods

Collection of Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus laetus)

Adult Dusky Cotton Bugs were collected from cotton fields using the hand-picking method. The collected specimens were carefully transferred to laboratory cages and provided with fresh cotton leaves and bolls as a food source for sustenance. This ensured that the bugs were kept in conditions mimicking their natural environment, allowing for reliable experimental results.

Preparation of pesticide and biopesticide dilutions

Petri plates were thoroughly cleaned, rinsed with distilled water, and dried before use. Stock solutions (D-1) of the highest doses of each insecticide were prepared, and serial dilutions were made with distilled water to obtain the required concentrations for each insecticide. Dilutions were made using distinct graduated cylinders (D-2) for precision and consistency. The selected insecticides included both synthetic and botanical insecticides, allowing for a comprehensive comparison between traditional chemical pesticides and biopesticides derived from plant extracts. The focus on biopesticides, such as Azadirachta indica (neem), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (flooded gum), Melia azedarach (chinaberry), and Citrullus colocynthis (bitter cucumber), was justified as part of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy, aimed at minimizing the environmental and health risks associated with synthetic insecticides. Synthetic insecticides, such as Cypermethrin, were also included in the study for comparison, due to their widespread use and known efficacy in pest control.

Bioassay with insecticides in the laboratory

Toxicity tests were conducted with seven insecticides at various concentrations, including both biopesticides and a synthetic insecticide. The insecticides and concentrations tested were as follows:

1. Azadirachta indica + Acetone (5%, 10%, 15%)
2. Eucalyptus camaldulensis + Acetone (5%, 10%, 15%)
3. Citrullus colocynthis + Acetone (5%, 10%, 15%)
4. Melia azedarach + Acetone (5%, 10%, 15%)
5. Cypermethrin (0.1%, 0.05%, 0.025%)

Each treatment was replicated five times, with ten adult Dusky Cotton Bugs placed in each Petri dish for a total of 50 bugs per treatment. Control treatments consisted of acetone solutions without the insecticide. The comparison of synthetic insecticides to biopesticides aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of environmentally friendly alternatives, and the replications ensured statistical reliability.

Determination of toxicity and LC₅₀ calculation

Toxicity tests followed the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines for pesticide trials. Ten adult Dusky Cotton Bugs were introduced into each Petri dish lined with filter paper treated with the respective insecticide solutions. Controls were treated with distilled water mixed with acetone. Bugs were observed at 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours after treatment. Bugs were considered dead if they remained immobile for more than 10 seconds after being disturbed with a fine brush. The LC₅₀ (Lethal Concentration for 50% mortality) was calculated using probit analysis, allowing for the determination of the concentration at which 50% of the population was killed.

Residual effect of insecticides on dusky cotton bug

In addition to direct toxicity, the residual effects of the insecticides were tested. The treated filter papers were left in the Petri dishes, and fresh bugs were introduced to assess long-term insecticidal activity. Mortality data were collected at the same intervals (12, 24, 48, and 96 hours) to measure the persistence of the insecticidal effects.

Preparation of stock solutions for extracts

The stock solutions of the plant extracts—Azadirachta indica (neem), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (flooded gum), Melia azedarach (chinaberry), Citrullus colocynthis (bitter cucumber)—were prepared by dissolving the extracts in distilled water with acetone as a solvent. Serial dilutions were created for each plant extract to achieve concentrations of 5%, 10%, and 15%. Cypermethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid, was also prepared in similar dilutions for comparison. The stock solutions of these biopesticides were assessed for their effectiveness against Dusky Cotton Bug infestations.

Testing Melia azedarach (Bakain) on Dusky Cotton Bug

Melia azedarach (commonly known as Bakain or Chinaberry) has been extensively studied for its biopesticidal properties. The insecticidal activity of M. azedarach is attributed to its compounds, such as meliatoxins, which disrupt the feeding and reproduction of pests. In this study, M. azedarach was tested at varying concentrations (5%, 10%, and 15%) to determine its efficacy against the Dusky Cotton Bug. The residue-based bioassay method was used to test its toxicity and residual effects, following the same procedure outlined for other insecticides.

Guidelines followed

All toxicity trials in this study were conducted according to the guidelines established by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), ensuring standardization and reproducibility in the testing of insecticide efficacy and environmental safety.

Results

Analysis of neem concentrations on Dusky Cotton Bug mortality

The effects of varying concentrations of neem (Azadirachta indica) on the mortality of the Dusky Cotton Bug showed statistically significant differences across all treatment groups (p < 0.05). At 12 hours post-treatment, two treatment groups, T1 and T5, exhibited the highest mortality rates of 13.333%, forming Group A. All other treatments had 0.0% mortality and were classified under Group B. This early-phase result indicated a strong insecticidal effect of certain neem concentrations. By 24 hours, T1 and T5 continued to show the highest mortality rates at 26.667%, forming Group A, while other treatments displayed varying mortality rates and were categorized into additional groups: Group B, Group C, etc. These differences became more pronounced over time.

At 48 hours, T1 emerged as the most effective treatment, causing 40.0% mortality, maintaining its position in Group A, while other treatments remained in separate statistical groups. By 96 hours, T1 and T5 again showed the highest mortality rates of 60%, confirming their superior insecticidal properties. The other treatments were categorized into varying groups based on their mortality rates (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Mortality rate of Dusky Cotton Bug under different neem treatments over time. This graph illustrates the mortality rates of Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus laetus) at 12, 24, 48, and 96-hour intervals after exposure to different concentrations of neem-based treatments (T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5). The results show that T1 and T5 consistently exhibited the highest mortality rates at each time point, with significant differences observed across all treatments (p < 0.05). The last two treatment groups in Figure 1B were marked with appropriate annotations to clearly distinguish the data.

Effects of varied Bakain concentrations on 12h, 24h, 48 and 96h mortality rates of Dusky Cotton Bugs

The analysis of various concentrations of Bakain on dusky cotton bug mortality revealed differing outcomes over the exposure periods. After 12 hours, all Bakain concentrations showed no significant differences (p = 0.4711) except for T1 with a maximum mortality of 3.3333%. At 24 hours, significant differences were observed (p = 0.0300), with T1 having the highest mortality (16.667%). By 48 hours, all Bakain concentrations showed significant differences (p = 0.0123), with T3 recording the highest mortality (30.000%) (Supplementary Materials). Finally, after 96 hours, all Bakain concentrations exhibited significant differences (p = 0.0000), with T2 displaying the highest mortality (36.667%). (Figure 2) depict the concentration-mortality relationships at 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours, respectively.

Figure 2: Comparison of mortality rates of Dusky Cotton Bug at various time intervals for T1 and T5 Treatments. This figure illustrates the mortality rates (%) of Dusky Cotton Bug over four time intervals (12, 24, 48, and 96 hours) for treatments T1 and T5. T1 consistently demonstrated higher mortality rates across all time periods, with the maximum mortality observed after 96 hours. T5 showed relatively lower effectiveness compared to T1. The data highlight the time-dependent toxicity of the treatments, emphasizing the effectiveness of T1 in controlling the Dusky Cotton Bug population. Statistical significance (p < 0.05) was observed at 24, 48, and 96-hour intervals.

Effects of varied Tumma concentrations on 12h, 24h, 48 and 96h mortality rates of Dusky Cotton Bugs

The impact of Tumma concentrations on dusky cotton bug mortality was assessed at different time intervals. At 12 hours, all Tumma concentrations showed significant differences (p = 0.0015), with T1 having the highest mortality (23.333%). After 24, 48, and 96 hours, all Tumma concentrations demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.0001), with varying mortality rates. (Figure 3) represent the concentration-mortality relationships at 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours, respectively.

Figure 3: Mortality rates of Dusky Cotton Bug at Various Tumma concentrations. The graph illustrates the concentration-mortality relationships of the Dusky Cotton Bug at different Tumma concentrations over 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours post-exposure. Statistical significance was observed across all concentrations (p < 0.0001) at each time interval.

Effects of varied Eucalyptus concentrations on 12h, 24h, 48 and 96h mortality rates of Dusky Cotton Bugs

The impact of Eucalyptus concentrations on dusky cotton bug mortality was examined across varying time intervals. At 12 hours, all concentrations showed no significant differences (p = 0.5516), with maximum mortality at 3.3333%. By 24, 48, and 96 hours, significant differences were observed (p < 0.05), with increasing mortality rates. Figures 4ABC and D depict the concentration-mortality relationships at 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours, respectively.

Figure 4: ABC shows the mortality rates of dusky cotton bugs at 12, 24, and 48 hours after exposure to various Eucalyptus concentrations, revealing no significant differences at 12 hours but significant changes over time. Figure 4D displays the mortality rates after 96 hours, depicting significant differences among concentrations and notably increased mortality rates.

Effects of varied Cypermethrin 10EC concentrations on 12h, 24h, 48 and 96h mortality rates of dusky cotton bugs

The impact of Cypermethrin 10EC concentrations on dusky cotton bug mortality was assessed at various time intervals. Significant differences were observed at 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours, with distinct mortality rates among concentrations. Figure 5ABC and D illustrate the concentration-mortality relationships at 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours, respectively.

Figure 5: The relationship between different concentrations of Cypermethrin 10EC and the mortality rates of dusky cotton bugs observed at 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours post-application. The distinct trends in mortality rates among concentrations over the specified time intervals are visually represented in this comprehensive illustration.

Discussion

This study focused on assessing the effectiveness of Neem, Tumma, Bakain, Eucalyptus, and Cypermethrin 10EC against the dusky cotton bug (Oxycarenus laetus). Notably, Cypermethrin demonstrated exceptional efficacy, showing significant mortality rates 96 hours post-application, with an LC₅₀ value of 22.20 ppm. Surprisingly, Bakain emerged as the second most effective insecticide, contrary to established literature, exhibiting an LC₅₀ value of 499.73 ppm after 96 hours of exposure. While our results deviated from prior studies, certain parallels were drawn to other research, aligning with findings regarding the efficacy of imidacloprid in controlling the dusky cotton bug, was observed [3636Malik SU, Zia K, Ajmal M, Shoukat RF, Li S, Saeed M, Zafar J, Shoukat RF. Comparative efficacy of different insecticides and estimation of yield losses on BT and non-BT cotton for thrips, red cotton bug, and dusky cotton bug. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2018;6:505-12.-3838Saeed R, Abbas N, Hafez AM. Fitness cost of imidacloprid resistance in the cotton-staining bug, Dysdercus koenigii. Chemosphere. 2021 Feb;265:129118. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129118. Epub 2020 Nov 26. PMID: 33280850.]. In comparison, Neem displayed promising outcomes, outperforming other insecticides used in this study. Despite differing from existing literature, our findings echoed studies that highlighted the limited effectiveness of thiamethoxam in controlling whitefly in cotton [3939Mohammadali MT, Alyousuf AA, Baqir HA, Kadhim AA. Evaluation of the efficacy of different Neocontinoid insecticides against cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) on eggplant under greenhouse condition. Paper presented at: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science; 2019.,4040Zhang L, Greenberg SM, Zhang Y, Liu TX. Effectiveness of thiamethoxam and imidacloprid seed treatments against Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) on cotton. Pest Manag Sci. 2011 Feb;67(2):226-32. doi: 10.1002/ps.2056. PMID: 21077123.], and its failure in managing Bemisia tabaci [4141Basit M. Cotton pest control awareness in farmers of the Punjab, Pakistan and its impact on whitefly resistance against available insecticides. Phytoparasitica. 2018;46:183-95.,4242Dennehy TJ, DeGain BA, Harpold VS, Brown JK, Morin S, Fabrick JA, Byrne FJ, Nichols RL. New challenges to management of whitefly resistance to insecticides in Arizona. Vegetable Report. 2005;1-28.]. However, both Eucalyptus and Tumma exhibited lower efficacy compared to Neem and Bakain. Our study deviated from prior research, particularly findings on acetamiprid's effectiveness in reducing Bemisia tabaci populations below established thresholds. Despite these results, uncertainties linger regarding the impact of these insecticides on field populations of dusky cotton bugs. Future investigations, especially field studies, are crucial to unravel the practical implications of these insecticides on the populations of this pest and their overall effectiveness in managing it [4343Arshad MU, Zhao Y, Hanif O, Fatima F. Evolution of overall cotton production and its determinants: Implications for developing countries using Pakistan case. Sustainability. 2022;14:1-17.-6060Yee J, Ferguson W. Cotton pest management strategies and related pesticide use and yield. J Prod Agric. 1999;12:618-23.].

Conclusion

The study demonstrated the varying efficacy of different insecticides and biopesticides against the Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus laetus). The results highlighted that certain concentrations of Azadirachta indica, Bakain, Tumma, and Eucalyptus camaldulensis significantly reduced mortality over time, with notable differences in effectiveness observed at specific intervals. These findings underscore the potential of both synthetic and natural insecticides in integrated pest management strategies for cotton crops. Continued research is essential to refine these approaches and enhance cotton production while mitigating the adverse impacts of pest infestations.

Author contributions

Muhammad Salman Hameed and Muhammad Arshad conceived, designed, and wrote the manuscript. Nida Urooj helped in table preparation and statistical analysis, while Muhammad Salman Hameed revised and finalized the manuscripts. All authors approved the submitted version.

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Hameed MU, Arshad M, Khan KH, Urooj N. Efficacy of Alternative Insecticides against Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus laetus) to Improve Yield Losses in Cotton Crops through Residue-based Bioassay. IgMin Res. October 09, 2024; 2(10): 794-800. IgMin ID: igmin249; DOI:10.61927/igmin249; Available at: igmin.link/p249

• DOI10.61927/igmin249

23 Sep, 2024

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08 Oct, 2024

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09 Oct, 2024

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Toxicology Ecosystem ResilienceBiochemistry