Theoretical Review on Microplastic Pollution: A Multifaceted Threat to Marine Ecosystems, Human Health, and Environment

Abstract

Microplastic pollution in oceans poses a complex global threat to marine ecosystems and human health. These ubiquitous plastic particles originate from diverse sources and become widely dispersed by ocean currents, contaminating remote regions worldwide. In the aquatic environment, microplastics cause physical harm to aquatic species through ingestion. They disrupt habitats and act as vectors for toxic chemicals through bioaccumulation in aquatic species, enter food webs, and impair marine ecosystem functions. For humans, microplastic exposure via seafood consumption, drinking water, and inhalation raises concerns about potential inflammatory, cytotoxic, and endocrine-disrupting diseases that are linked to cancer, reproductive problems, and metabolic disorders. Mitigating this pervasive pollution requires a multi-pronged approach, including policy interventions that minimize plastic use, improve waste management, encourage technological innovations for biodegradable alternatives, provide public awareness campaigns, and improve coordinated efforts across plastic stakeholders. Comprehensive strategies combining research, regulations, and public engagement are crucial to protect marine life and human health from the detrimental impacts of microplastic contamination. This paper provides an overview of the origins and pathways of microplastics and assesses the impacts of microplastic pollution on human health and the environment. This study also highlights the methodology, knowledge gaps, and future directions to facilitate research on microplastic removal and risk assessment in the oceans.

Introduction

Microplastic pollution in the oceans has emerged as one of our most pressing environmental issues [11Choudhury A, Sarmah R, Bhagabati S, Dutta R, Baishya S, Borah S, Pokhrel H, Mudoi L, Sainary B, Borah K. Microplastic pollution: An emerging environmental issue. Environ Chem Lett. 2018 Dec;16(4):1451-1463.]. These tiny plastic particles, less than 5 millimeters in diameter, are ubiquitous in marine environments and originate from various sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris, industrial processes, and consumer products. Their pervasive presence in the world’s oceans poses significant threats to marine ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health [22Auta HS, Emenike CU, Fauziah SH. Distribution and importance of microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the sources, fate, effects, and potential solutions. Environ Int. 2017 May;102:165-176. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.02.013. Epub 2017 Mar 9. PMID: 28284818.].

Origins and pathways of microplastics

Microplastics enter marine environments through multiple pathways. The detailed flow for the origin and pathways of microplastics is presented in Figure 1. Primary microplastics are intentionally manufactured small particles used in products such as exfoliants in personal care products, industrial abrasives, and pre-production plastic pellets known as nurdles. Secondary microplastics result from the fragmentation of larger plastic items like bottles, bags, and fishing nets. This fragmentation occurs due to physical, chemical, and biological processes, including UV radiation, wave action, and microbial degradation [33Laskar N, Kumar U. Plastics and microplastics: A threat to environment. Environ Technol Innov. 2019 Mar;14:100352.].

Figure 1: Plastic debris from Kanapou Bay, on one of the islands of Hawaii. (Image credit: NOAA)

Microplastics are also introduced into marine environments via direct disposal, stormwater runoff, wastewater effluent, and atmospheric deposition. Coastal areas, estuaries, and rivers are significant conduits for transporting microplastics from terrestrial sources to the open ocean. Once in the marine environment, microplastics are dispersed by ocean currents, with some settling in sediment while others remain suspended in the water column or accumulate on the ocean surface [44Horton AA, Dixon SJ. Microplastics: An introduction to environmental transport processes. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water. 2018 Mar; 5(2).]. Figure 2 presents the relationship between microplastics and the food web [55Lakhiar IA, Yan H, Zhang J, Wang G, Deng S, Bao R, Zhang C, Syed TN, Wang B, Zhou R, Wang X. Plastic Pollution in Agriculture as a Threat to Food Security, the Ecosystem, and the Environment: An Overview. Agronomy. 2024 Mar;14(3):3. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14030548-77Setälä O, Lehtiniemi M, Coppock R, Cole M. Microplastics in marine food webs. In: Microplastic contamination in aquatic environments. Elsevier; 2018. pp. 339-363.].

Figure 2: The detailed flow for the origin and pathways of microplastics

The sheer magnitude of microplastic pollution is staggering. Recent estimates suggest that by 2040, there could be more than 600 million tons of microplastic waste in our oceans alone [88Kokarakis J, Kokarakis E, Ladakis E, Petrakakos H. Microplastics and their Impact on the Marine Environment. D021S006R003. 2023.]. These tiny particles have been detected in virtually every corner of the planet, from the remote Arctic regions to the deepest ocean trenches and even in the air we breathe [99Gray T. Oceans of Plastic: Understanding and Solving a Pollution Problem. CSIRO Publishing; 2022.].

The significance of this study on microplastic pollution lies in its comprehensiveness and focus on human health risks. While previous studies explored the origins, pathways, and ecological impacts of microplastics, this study offers a detailed analysis of risk assessment methodology for microplastics in the oceans and their human health aspects. It emphasizes the multi-faceted approach required to address this issue, encompassing policy interventions, technological advancements, and public awareness campaigns. Existing literature covers the sources (primary and secondary) and distribution pathways of microplastics in marine environments. This study elaborates on this by providing a detailed flowchart. Existing literature explores the ecological impacts of microplastics on aquatic organisms. This study presents a table summarizing these impacts and delves into the human health implications in detail, including potential chronic health problems. Existing literature acknowledges the need for mitigation strategies. This study emphasizes a multi-pronged approach, including policy changes, improved waste management, and public awareness initiatives. Overall, this study builds upon existing knowledge by thoroughly assessing microplastic pollution, highlighting human health risks, and proposing a comprehensive solution-oriented approach.

Methodology to assess the impacts of microplastic pollution

Assessing the impacts of microplastic pollution is critical for understanding the full extent of its effects on marine ecosystems and human health. Typical assessment involves a multifaceted approach combining field observations, laboratory experiments, and advanced analytical techniques [1010Ivleva NP. Chemical Analysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Challenges, Advanced Methods, and Perspectives. Chem Rev. 2021 Oct 13;121(19):11886-11936. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00178. Epub 2021 Aug 26. PMID: 34436873.]. Table 1 presents the analytical techniques for microplastic analysis. In marine ecosystems, scientists evaluate the presence and concentration of microplastics in various environments, such as surface waters, sediments, and biota. Field studies often involve sampling these environments and analyzing the collected samples using microscopy, spectroscopy, and chemical analysis to identify and quantify microplastic particles [1111Wang W, Wang J. Investigation of microplastics in aquatic environments: An overview of the methods used, from field sampling to laboratory analysis. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2018 Nov;108:195-202..]. These studies help to reveal the widespread contamination, with microplastics found from the deepest ocean trenches to the most remote polar regions [1212Mai L, Bao LJ, Shi L, Wong CS, Zeng EY. A review of methods for measuring microplastics in aquatic environments. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018 Apr;25(12):11319-11332. doi: 10.1007/s11356-018-1692-0. Epub 2018 Mar 13. PMID: 29536421.,1313Peng X, Chen M, Chen S, Dasgupta S, Xu H, Ta K, Du M, Li J, Guo Z, Bai S. Microplastics contaminate the deepest part of the world’s ocean. Geochem Perspect Lett. 2018 Jan;9(1):1-5.].

Table 1: Analytical techniques for microplastic analysis [4242Huang W, Song B, Liang J, Niu Q, Zeng G, Shen M, Deng J, Luo Y, Wen X, Zhang Y. Microplastics and associated contaminants in the aquatic environment: A review on their ecotoxicological effects, trophic transfer, and potential impacts to human health. J Hazard Mater. 2021 Mar 5;405:124187. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124187. Epub 2020 Oct 15. PMID: 33153780.].

Laboratory experiments play a crucial role in assessing the biological impacts of microplastics. Researchers expose marine organisms to controlled concentrations of microplastics to study their effects on physiology, behavior, and reproduction. These experiments have shown that microplastic ingestion can cause physical blockages in the digestive systems of organisms, leading to malnutrition, reduced growth, and even mortality [1414Issac MN, Kandasubramanian B. Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021 Apr;28(16):19544-19562. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-13184-2. Epub 2021 Mar 2. PMID: 33655475; PMCID: PMC7924819.]. Additionally, microplastics can serve as vectors for harmful chemicals, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which adsorb onto their surfaces. When ingested, these chemicals can be released into the organisms, causing toxicological effects that include endocrine disruption, immune system impairment, and increased susceptibility to diseases [1515Yin K, Wang Y, Zhao H, Wang D, Guo M, Mu M, Liu Y, Nie X, Li B, Li J. A comparative review of microplastics and nanoplastics: Toxicity hazards on digestive, reproductive and nervous system. Sci Total Environ. 2021 Oct;774:145758.]. Advanced analytical techniques are employed to understand the chemical and physical interactions between microplastics and their surrounding environments. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy characterize microplastic polymer types and additives, providing insights into their potential toxicity. Moreover, assessments include studying the degradation processes of microplastics under different environmental conditions to predict their persistence and transformation in marine ecosystems [1616Brandt J, Bittrich L, Fischer F, Kanaki E, Tagg A, Lenz R, Labrenz M, Brandes E, Fischer D, Eichhorn KJ. High-Throughput Analyses of Microplastic Samples Using Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Spectrometry. Appl Spectrosc. 2020 Sep;74(9):1185-1197. doi: 10.1177/0003702820932926. Epub 2020 Jun 19. PMID: 32436395.].

Assessing the human health impacts of microplastic pollution involves examining exposure pathways and potential health outcomes. Epidemiological studies and toxicological research are conducted to determine the extent of human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact [66Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Motta O, Miele Y, Proto A, Montano L. Microplastics in the Environment: Intake through the Food Web, Human Exposure and Toxicological Effects. Toxics. 2021 Sep 16;9(9):224. doi: 10.3390/toxics9090224. PMID: 34564375; PMCID: PMC8473407.]. Microplastics have been found in seafood, drinking water, and even the air, raising concerns about their potential health risks. Laboratory studies on human cells and tissues have indicated that microplastics can cause inflammatory responses, cellular damage, and oxidative stress [1717Köktürk M, Özgeriş FB, Atamanalp M, Uçar A, Özdemir S, Parlak V, Duyar HA, Alak G. Microplastic-induced oxidative stress response in turbot and potential intake by humans. Drug Chem Toxicol. 2024 May;47(3):296-305. doi: 10.1080/01480545.2023.2168690. Epub 2023 Jan 19. PMID: 36656072.]. Long-term health implications, such as cancer, reproductive harm, and metabolic disorders, are areas of ongoing research. A comprehensive assessment of microplastic pollution’s impacts necessitates interdisciplinary collaboration among oceanographers, ecologists, toxicologists, and public health experts. It also requires the integration of scientific findings into policy-making and public awareness initiatives to mitigate the pollution at its source and reduce its adverse effects. Table 2 provides insights into key experts and their contribution to assessing microplastic pollution. By thoroughly understanding the scope and severity of microplastic pollution, effective strategies can be developed to protect marine ecosystems and safeguard human health [1818Burgess RM, Ho KT. Microplastics in the aquatic environment-Perspectives on the scope of the problem. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2017 Sep;36(9):2259-2265. doi: 10.1002/etc.3867. PMID: 28843056; PMCID: PMC6166645.-2020Harris LST. Marine Microplastic Pollution: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding the Effects on Organisms, Ecosystems, and Policy [D. dissertation]. University of Washington; 2020. Available from: https://www.proquest.com/docview/2492238721/abstract/C2DE2BFAA4A54EA8PQ/1Ma,].

Table 2: The key experts and their role in contribution to assessing Microplastic Pollution.

Impact of microplastic pollution on marine ecosystems

The environmental impact of microplastic pollution on marine ecosystems is profound and multifaceted. Marine organisms across the food web, from plankton to large marine mammals, ingest microplastics, mistaking them for food [2121Ma H, Pu S, Liu S, Bai Y, Mandal S, Xing B. Microplastics in aquatic environments: Toxicity to trigger ecological consequences. Environ Pollut. 2020 Jun;261:114089. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114089. Epub 2020 Feb 1. PMID: 32062100.]. Ingestion of microplastics can lead to physical harm, such as blockages in the digestive system, reduced feeding, and impaired growth and reproduction [2222Anbumani S, Kakkar P. Ecotoxicological effects of microplastics on biota: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018 May;25(15):14373-14396. doi: 10.1007/s11356-018-1999-x. Epub 2018 Apr 21. PMID: 29680884.].

The ingestion of microplastics by smaller organisms also facilitates the transfer of these particles up the food chain, affecting predators and potentially leading to biomagnification of associated toxins [2323Carbery M, O'Connor W, Palanisami T. Trophic transfer of microplastics and mixed contaminants in the marine food web and implications for human health. Environ Int. 2018 Jun;115:400-409. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.007. Epub 2018 Apr 10. PMID: 29653694.]. The key impacts of microplastics on human health are presented in Table 3. 

Table 3: The Key Impacts of Microplastics on the Environment.

Figure 3 shows the microplastics transport from the environment to humans and birds. Microplastics can adsorb and concentrate harmful pollutants from the surrounding water, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pesticides such as DDT [2424Bakir A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC. Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ Pollut. 2014 Feb;185:16-23. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007. Epub 2013 Nov 6. PMID: 24212067.]. When ingested, these toxic chemicals can desorb in the gastrointestinal tracts of marine organisms, leading to toxicological effects. Furthermore, the physical presence of microplastics in habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds can cause physical abrasion and damage, disrupting ecological functions and services [2525Gallo F, Fossi C, Weber R, Santillo D, Sousa J, Ingram I, Nadal A, Romano D. Marine litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive measures. Environ Sci Eur. 2018;30(1):13. doi: 10.1186/s12302-018-0139-z. Epub 2018 Apr 18. PMID: 29721401; PMCID: PMC5918521.].

4747Cverenkárová K, Valachovičová M, Mackuľak T, Žemlička L, Bírošová L. Microplastics in the Food Chain. Life (Basel). 2021 Dec 6;11(12):1349. doi: 10.3390/life11121349. PMID: 34947879; PMCID: PMC8704590.]." /> Figure 3: Relation between microplastics and the food web [4747Cverenkárová K, Valachovičová M, Mackuľak T, Žemlička L, Bírošová L. Microplastics in the Food Chain. Life (Basel). 2021 Dec 6;11(12):1349. doi: 10.3390/life11121349. PMID: 34947879; PMCID: PMC8704590.].

Human health implications

Human health is also at risk due to microplastic pollution. Microplastics enter the human body by consuming contaminated seafood, drinking water, and even inhaling airborne particles. Table 4 provides insights into the key impacts of microplastics on human health. Recent studies have detected microplastics in various human tissues, raising concerns about their potential health impacts [2626Smith M, Love DC, Rochman CM, Neff RA. Microplastics in Seafood and the Implications for Human Health. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2018 Sep;5(3):375-386. doi: 10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z. PMID: 30116998; PMCID: PMC6132564.]. The ingestion of microplastics can lead to physical and chemical toxicity, including inflammatory responses, cellular damage, and disruptions to the endocrine system. Ingestion of microplastics through consumption of contaminated seafood, particularly shellfish, and organisms consumed whole, can lead to exposure to harmful chemicals and additives associated with plastics. Potential toxicity effects include oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and immune system disruption due to the transfer of microplastics and associated toxins to tissues [2727Walkinshaw C, Lindeque PK, Thompson R, Tolhurst T, Cole M. Microplastics and seafood: lower trophic organisms at highest risk of contamination. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2020 Mar 1;190:110066. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110066. Epub 2019 Dec 15. PMID: 31846861.]. The key impacts of microplastics on human health are presented in Table 3. Microplastics’ toxicity depends on size, polymer type, and surface chemistry. Microplastics may act as vectors for Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and other hazardous chemicals, increasing human exposure to these contaminants through the food chain. Microplastics in drinking water sources and the potential for inhaling airborne microplastics into the respiratory system add further health risks [2828Zhang Q, Xu EG, Li J, Chen Q, Ma L, Zeng EY, Shi H. A Review of Microplastics in Table Salt, Drinking Water, and Air: Direct Human Exposure. Environ Sci Technol. 2020 Apr 7;54(7):3740-3751. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04535. Epub 2020 Mar 11. PMID: 32119774.]. While the full extent of the health implications is not yet fully understood, emerging evidence suggests that chronic microplastic exposure could have significant long-term health effects, necessitating urgent research and regulatory action [2929Shukla S, Pei Y, Li WG, Pei DS. Toxicological Research on Nano and Microplastics in Environmental Pollution: Current Advances and Future Directions. Aquat Toxicol. 2024 May;270:106894. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2024.106894. Epub 2024 Mar 11. PMID: 38492287.].

Overview of risk assessment methodology for microplastics in the ocean

Hazard identification: Microplastics, defined as plastic particles less than 5 mm in diameter, originate from various sources, including consumer products, industrial processes, and the degradation of oversized plastic items. Due to their physical properties and chemical composition, which can include toxic additives and adsorbed pollutants, these particles pose potential hazards [3030Lai H, Liu X, Qu M. Nanoplastics and Human Health: Hazard Identification and Biointerface. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2022 Apr 11;12(8):1298. doi: 10.3390/nano12081298. PMID: 35458006; PMCID: PMC9026096.].

Exposure assessment: Microplastics are ubiquitous in marine environments and widespread in surface waters, sediments, and aquatic organisms [3131Adam V, von Wyl A, Nowack B. Probabilistic environmental risk assessment of microplastics in marine habitats. Aquat Toxicol. 2021 Jan;230:105689. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105689. Epub 2020 Nov 25. PMID: 33302173.]. The exposure assessment focuses on:

Marine organisms: Many marine species, from plankton to fish and marine mammals, ingest micro-plastics. This exposure can occur directly through feeding or indirectly via the food web [3232Setälä O, Fleming-Lehtinen V, Lehtiniemi M. Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web. Environ Pollut. 2014 Feb;185:77-83. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013. Epub 2013 Nov 9. PMID: 24220023.].

Humans: Human exposure to microplastics primarily occurs through the consumption of contaminated seafood and water and the inhalation of airborne particles. Studies have detected micro-plastics in various human tissues, indicating the potential for widespread exposure [3333Prata JC, da Costa JP, Lopes I, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. Environmental exposure to microplastics: An overview on possible human health effects. Sci Total Environ. 2020 Feb 1;702:134455. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455. Epub 2019 Oct 4. PMID: 31733547.].

Dose-response assessment: The dose-response relationship examines the effects of different concentrations of microplastics on organisms and human health [3434Liu Z, Huang Q, Chen L, Li J, Jia H. Is the impact of atmospheric microplastics on human health underestimated? Uncertainty in risk assessment: A case study of urban atmosphere in Xi'an, Northwest China. Sci Total Environ. 2022 Dec 10;851(Pt 2):158167. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158167. Epub 2022 Aug 20. PMID: 35998719.]. Key findings include:

Marine Organisms:

Physical effects: Ingestion of microplastics can cause physical blockages, gastrointestinal injury, and impaired feeding and reproduction.

Chemical effects: Microplastics can adsorb toxic chemicals from the environment. Ingested microplastics can release these chemicals, leading to toxicological effects such as endocrine disruption, immune response alterations, and increased mortality.

Humans:

Acute effects: Ingestion and inhalation of microplastics can cause local inflammation and cellular damage.

Chronic effects: Long-term exposure may lead to chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and potential carcinogenic effects. The full spectrum of health impacts is still under investigation, but there is concern about cumulative effects over time.

Risk characterization: Risk characterization integrates hazard identification, exposure assessment, and dose-response assessment to estimate the risk posed by microplastics to marine organisms and humans [3535Gouin T. Toward an Improved Understanding of the Ingestion and Trophic Transfer of Microplastic Particles: Critical Review and Implications for Future Research. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2020 May;39(6):1119-1137. doi: 10.1002/etc.4718. PMID: 32223000; PMCID: PMC7383496.]. The key conclusions are:

Marine ecosystems: The widespread presence and persistence of microplastics in marine environments pose a significant risk to biodiversity and ecosystem functionality. The ingestion of microplastics by marine organisms can lead to bioaccumulation and biomagnification of toxic substances, disrupting food webs and causing population declines in affected species.

Human health: The risk to human health is a growing concern due to the potential for chronic microplastic exposure through diet and inhalation. While acute health effects are better understood, further research is needed on long-term health implications and potential chronic diseases linked to microplastic exposure.

Risk management: Effective risk management strategies that mitigate the negative impacts of microplastic pollution include [3636Onyena AP, Aniche DC, Ogbolu BO, Rakib MRJ, Uddin J, Walker TR. Governance strategies for mitigating microplastic pollution in the marine environment: A review. Microplastics. 2021 Jan;1(1):15-46.]:

Policy and regulation: Implementing strict policies/regulations that minimize or eliminate plastic production, use, and disposal. Innovative approaches that circularity, where plastic materials are used for as long as possible, reduce the demand to produce new plastic products and effectively manage existing plastic waste.

Waste management: Enhancing waste management practices to reduce plastic leakage into the environment. This includes improving recycling rates, promoting biodegradable materials, and developing technologies to better capture and treat microplastics in wastewater.

Public awareness and education: Raising public awareness about the sources and impacts of microplastic pollution. Encouraging behavioral changes to reduce plastic use and improve waste disposal practices.

Research and monitoring: Supporting research to understand better the sources, distribution, and impacts of microplastics. Establishing monitoring programs to track the presence and effects of microplastics in marine environments and human populations.

Overall, the risk assessment of microplastics in the ocean highlights the significant environmental and human health risks associated with their pervasive presence. Comprehensive and coordinated efforts are required to mitigate these risks and protect marine ecosystems and human well-being from the adverse effects of microplastic pollution.

Discussion

The reviewed articles offer a comprehensive overview of the current scientific understanding of microplastic pollution, encompassing its sources, ecological impacts, potential human health risks, and analytical techniques for detection. Some key findings and emerging themes:

Ubiquity and persistence

The research paints a concerning picture of microplastic ubiquity across various environmental compartments, including the water column, sediments, and biota [22Auta HS, Emenike CU, Fauziah SH. Distribution and importance of microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the sources, fate, effects, and potential solutions. Environ Int. 2017 May;102:165-176. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.02.013. Epub 2017 Mar 9. PMID: 28284818.,1818Burgess RM, Ho KT. Microplastics in the aquatic environment-Perspectives on the scope of the problem. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2017 Sep;36(9):2259-2265. doi: 10.1002/etc.3867. PMID: 28843056; PMCID: PMC6166645.,3434Liu Z, Huang Q, Chen L, Li J, Jia H. Is the impact of atmospheric microplastics on human health underestimated? Uncertainty in risk assessment: A case study of urban atmosphere in Xi'an, Northwest China. Sci Total Environ. 2022 Dec 10;851(Pt 2):158167. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158167. Epub 2022 Aug 20. PMID: 35998719.,3737Erni-Cassola G, Dolf R, Burkhardt-Holm P. Microplastics in the Water Column of the Rhine River Near Basel: 22 Months of Sampling. Environ Sci Technol. 2024 Mar 26;58(12):5491-5499. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08364. Epub 2024 Mar 13. PMID: 38478875; PMCID: PMC10976896.]. Their persistent nature due to resistance to degradation further exacerbates the problem [3838Browne MA, Crump P, Niven SJ, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R. Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: sources and sinks. Environ Sci Technol. 2011 Nov 1;45(21):9175-9. doi: 10.1021/es201811s. Epub 2011 Oct 4. PMID: 21894925.].

Ecological threats

Microplastics pose a significant threat to marine organisms through ingestion, entanglement, and potential for bioaccumulation of pollutants [2121Ma H, Pu S, Liu S, Bai Y, Mandal S, Xing B. Microplastics in aquatic environments: Toxicity to trigger ecological consequences. Environ Pollut. 2020 Jun;261:114089. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114089. Epub 2020 Feb 1. PMID: 32062100.,3939Wright SL, Thompson RC, Galloway TS. The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a review. Environ Pollut. 2013 Jul;178:483-92. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031. Epub 2013 Mar 29. PMID: 23545014.]. The articles highlight the transfer of microplastics through the food web, raising concerns for ecosystem health [2323Carbery M, O'Connor W, Palanisami T. Trophic transfer of microplastics and mixed contaminants in the marine food web and implications for human health. Environ Int. 2018 Jun;115:400-409. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.007. Epub 2018 Apr 10. PMID: 29653694.,3232Setälä O, Fleming-Lehtinen V, Lehtiniemi M. Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web. Environ Pollut. 2014 Feb;185:77-83. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013. Epub 2013 Nov 9. PMID: 24220023.].

Potential human health risks

The potential human health risks associated with microplastic exposure are a growing concern. Ingestion of microplastics via contaminated seafood and inhalation of airborne particles are potential pathways [2626Smith M, Love DC, Rochman CM, Neff RA. Microplastics in Seafood and the Implications for Human Health. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2018 Sep;5(3):375-386. doi: 10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z. PMID: 30116998; PMCID: PMC6132564.,3333Prata JC, da Costa JP, Lopes I, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. Environmental exposure to microplastics: An overview on possible human health effects. Sci Total Environ. 2020 Feb 1;702:134455. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455. Epub 2019 Oct 4. PMID: 31733547.]. Articles discuss the possibility of microplastics acting as vectors for other pollutants and their potential to induce cellular and immune system dysfunction [4040Li J, Zhang K, Zhang H. Adsorption of antibiotics on microplastics. Environ Pollut. 2018 Jun;237:460-467. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.050. Epub 2018 Mar 15. PMID: 29510365.,4141Yang W, Jannatun N, Zeng Y, Liu T, Zhang G, Chen C, Li Y. Impacts of microplastics on immunity. Front Toxicol. 2022 Sep 27;4:956885. doi: 10.3389/ftox.2022.956885. PMID: 36238600; PMCID: PMC9552327.]. However, further research is needed to elucidate the extent and severity of human health risks [2525Gallo F, Fossi C, Weber R, Santillo D, Sousa J, Ingram I, Nadal A, Romano D. Marine litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive measures. Environ Sci Eur. 2018;30(1):13. doi: 10.1186/s12302-018-0139-z. Epub 2018 Apr 18. PMID: 29721401; PMCID: PMC5918521.].

Analytical techniques

The advancement of analytical techniques like spectroscopy and microscopy is crucial for effective microplastic identification and characterization [1616Brandt J, Bittrich L, Fischer F, Kanaki E, Tagg A, Lenz R, Labrenz M, Brandes E, Fischer D, Eichhorn KJ. High-Throughput Analyses of Microplastic Samples Using Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Spectrometry. Appl Spectrosc. 2020 Sep;74(9):1185-1197. doi: 10.1177/0003702820932926. Epub 2020 Jun 19. PMID: 32436395.,4242Huang W, Song B, Liang J, Niu Q, Zeng G, Shen M, Deng J, Luo Y, Wen X, Zhang Y. Microplastics and associated contaminants in the aquatic environment: A review on their ecotoxicological effects, trophic transfer, and potential impacts to human health. J Hazard Mater. 2021 Mar 5;405:124187. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124187. Epub 2020 Oct 15. PMID: 33153780.]. These techniques are essential for assessing the extent and impact of microplastic pollution [1111Wang W, Wang J. Investigation of microplastics in aquatic environments: An overview of the methods used, from field sampling to laboratory analysis. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2018 Nov;108:195-202..].

Knowledge gaps and future directions

While significant progress has been made, knowledge gaps remain. These include a more comprehensive understanding of the long-term human health effects, the fate and transport of microplastics in complex environments, and the effectiveness of mitigation strategies [1919Danopoulos E, Stanton T, Ma Y, Horton AA, Chen Q, Levermore JM, Li J, McGoran AR, Lai Y, Nolte S. Insights into technical challenges in the field of microplastic pollution through the lens of early career researchers (ECRs) and a proposed pathway forward. Front Earth Sci. 2023;11:1271547.,4343Sarkar B, Dissanayake PD, Bolan NS, Dar JY, Kumar M, Haque MN, Mukhopadhyay R, Ramanayaka S, Biswas JK, Tsang DCW, Rinklebe J, Ok YS. Challenges and opportunities in sustainable management of microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment. Environ Res. 2022 May 1;207:112179. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112179. Epub 2021 Oct 5. PMID: 34624271.]. Future research should prioritize addressing these gaps to inform effective policy interventions and mitigation strategies to curb microplastic pollution.

Policy and societal response

The need for stronger policies and regulations to reduce plastic production and improve waste management is crucial [3636Onyena AP, Aniche DC, Ogbolu BO, Rakib MRJ, Uddin J, Walker TR. Governance strategies for mitigating microplastic pollution in the marine environment: A review. Microplastics. 2021 Jan;1(1):15-46.,4444Sandu C, Takacs E, Suaria G, Borgogno F, Laforsch C, Löder MM, Tweehuysen G, Florea L. Society role in the reduction of plastic pollution. In: Plastics in the Aquatic Environment-Part II: Stakeholders’ Role Against Pollution. Springer; 2020. pp. 39-65.]. Public awareness campaigns can promote responsible plastic consumption and behavior changes to minimize plastic pollution [4444Sandu C, Takacs E, Suaria G, Borgogno F, Laforsch C, Löder MM, Tweehuysen G, Florea L. Society role in the reduction of plastic pollution. In: Plastics in the Aquatic Environment-Part II: Stakeholders’ Role Against Pollution. Springer; 2020. pp. 39-65.].

In conclusion, the reviewed articles highlight the growing scientific consensus on the widespread presence and potential negative impacts of microplastic pollution. A multi-pronged approach is needed to address this global challenge, encompassing scientific research, policy interventions, and societal efforts to transition towards a more sustainable future.

Mitigation and management strategies

Addressing microplastic pollution requires a multi-faceted approach involving policy interventions, technological innovations, and public awareness. Policies at national and international levels must aim to reduce plastic production and consumption, promote recycling, and ban or limit the use of microplastics in products. Enhanced waste management practices, such as improved wastewater treatment processes and better stormwater management, are critical to preventing microplastics from entering marine environments [4343Sarkar B, Dissanayake PD, Bolan NS, Dar JY, Kumar M, Haque MN, Mukhopadhyay R, Ramanayaka S, Biswas JK, Tsang DCW, Rinklebe J, Ok YS. Challenges and opportunities in sustainable management of microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment. Environ Res. 2022 May 1;207:112179. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112179. Epub 2021 Oct 5. PMID: 34624271.]. Technological innovations, including developing biodegradable alternatives to traditional plastics and advanced filtration systems, can help mitigate microplastic pollution. Public awareness campaigns and education initiatives are essential to fostering behavioral changes that reduce plastic use and enhance recycling efforts [4444Sandu C, Takacs E, Suaria G, Borgogno F, Laforsch C, Löder MM, Tweehuysen G, Florea L. Society role in the reduction of plastic pollution. In: Plastics in the Aquatic Environment-Part II: Stakeholders’ Role Against Pollution. Springer; 2020. pp. 39-65.].

Ocean microplastic pollution represents a complex and pervasive environmental challenge with significant implications for marine ecosystems and human health. The multifaceted nature of this issue requires coordinated efforts from policymakers, researchers, industry stakeholders, and the public [4545Ghosh S, Sinha JK, Ghosh S, Vashisth K, Han S, Bhaskar R. Microplastics as an emerging threat to the global environment and human health. Sustainability. 2023 Jul;15(14):10821.]. Through comprehensive research, effective policy measures, and widespread public engagement, it is possible to mitigate the impacts of microplastics and protect both marine life and human health from their detrimental effects.

Knowledge gaps and future directions in microplastic research

The discussion identified several key knowledge gaps that require further investigation to comprehensively understand and address microplastic pollution. Here’s a breakdown of these gaps and potential future research directions:

Human health impacts:

Limited data: While the possibility of microplastic ingestion and potential health risks are acknowledged, robust data on the extent and severity of these risks is lacking [2525Gallo F, Fossi C, Weber R, Santillo D, Sousa J, Ingram I, Nadal A, Romano D. Marine litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive measures. Environ Sci Eur. 2018;30(1):13. doi: 10.1186/s12302-018-0139-z. Epub 2018 Apr 18. PMID: 29721401; PMCID: PMC5918521.].

Future research: Long-term epidemiological studies are needed to assess the potential human health consequences of microplastic exposure. This includes investigating potential links to chronic diseases and the influence of particle size, shape, and composition on toxicity.

Fate and transport:

Environmental complexity: Understanding the behavior of microplastics in complex environmental settings like estuaries and deep-sea environments remains limited [44Horton AA, Dixon SJ. Microplastics: An introduction to environmental transport processes. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water. 2018 Mar; 5(2).].

Future research: Research should focus on factors influencing microplastic transport and fate in diverse environments. This includes studying interactions with natural organic matter, biodegradation processes, and potential long-term environmental sinks for microplastics.

Mitigating microplastic pollution:

Effectiveness of solutions: The effectiveness of current and proposed solutions for reducing plastic use and managing waste needs to be evaluated [3636Onyena AP, Aniche DC, Ogbolu BO, Rakib MRJ, Uddin J, Walker TR. Governance strategies for mitigating microplastic pollution in the marine environment: A review. Microplastics. 2021 Jan;1(1):15-46.].

Future research: Research should assess the life-cycle impacts of alternative materials and the efficiency of wastewater treatment technologies in capturing microplastics. Additionally, social science research can explore consumer behavior and develop effective strategies to promote responsible plastic consumption.

Emerging areas of research:

Microplastic-pollutant interactions: Further investigation is needed to understand how microplastics interact with other environmental pollutants, potentially enhancing their toxicity [4646Menéndez-Pedriza A, Jaumot J. Interaction of Environmental Pollutants with Microplastics: A Critical Review of Sorption Factors, Bioaccumulation and Ecotoxicological Effects. Toxics. 2020 Jun 2;8(2):40. doi: 10.3390/toxics8020040. PMID: 32498316; PMCID: PMC7355763.].

Microplastics and climate change: The potential influence of climate change on the fate and transport of microplastics requires further exploration.

By addressing these knowledge gaps, researchers can develop a more comprehensive understanding of microplastic pollution and its impacts. This knowledge will be instrumental in informing effective policy interventions and practical solutions to mitigate this global environmental challenge.

Conclusion

Ocean microplastic pollution represents a complex and pervasive environmental challenge with significant implications for marine ecosystems and human health. As tiny plastic particles spread across the globe, originating from both primary and secondary sources, their presence in aquatic environments has become ubiquitous, reaching even the planet’s most remote regions. The origins and pathways of microplastics are diverse, involving direct disposal, runoff, wastewater effluent, and atmospheric deposition, leading to widespread dispersion by ocean currents. Assessing the impacts of microplastic pollution reveals profound and multifaceted effects. In marine ecosystems, microplastics cause physical harm to organisms through ingestion, leading to blockages, reduced feeding efficiency, and impaired growth and reproduction. They also serve as vectors for toxic chemicals, such as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which can bioaccumulate and biomagnify through the food web, exacerbating ecological risks. The physical presence of microplastics disrupts habitats and alters sediment quality, further threatening marine biodiversity and ecosystem functions.

Human health is also at risk due to microplastic exposure through consuming contaminated seafood, drinking water, and inhalation. Emerging evidence suggests that microplastics can cause inflammatory responses, cytotoxicity, and endocrine disruption, raising concerns about long-term health effects, including cancer, reproductive harm, and metabolic disorders. The full spectrum of these impacts remains under investigation, highlighting the need for ongoing research and regulatory action. Addressing microplastic pollution requires a multifaceted approach involving policy interventions, technological innovations, and public awareness. Policies at national and international levels must aim to reduce plastic production and consumption, promote recycling, and ban or limit the use of microplastics in products. Enhanced waste management practices, such as improved wastewater treatment processes and better stormwater management, are critical to preventing microplastics from entering marine environments. Technological innovations, including developing biodegradable alternatives to traditional plastics and advanced filtration systems, can help mitigate microplastic pollution. Public awareness campaigns and education initiatives are essential to fostering behavioral changes that reduce plastic use and enhance recycling efforts.

Through coordinated efforts from policymakers, researchers, industry stakeholders, and the public, the impacts of microplastics can be mitigated and their detrimental effects protected. Comprehensive research, effective policy measures, and widespread public engagement are crucial in tackling this pressing environmental issue, ensuring the preservation of marine ecosystems and safeguarding human health for future generations.

References

1. Choudhury A, Sarmah R, Bhagabati S, Dutta R, Baishya S, Borah S, Pokhrel H, Mudoi L, Sainary B, Borah K. Microplastic pollution: An emerging environmental issue. Environ Chem Lett. 2018 Dec;16(4):1451-1463.

2. Auta HS, Emenike CU, Fauziah SH. Distribution and importance of microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the sources, fate, effects, and potential solutions. Environ Int. 2017 May;102:165-176. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.02.013. Epub 2017 Mar 9. PMID: 28284818.

3. Laskar N, Kumar U. Plastics and microplastics: A threat to environment. Environ Technol Innov. 2019 Mar;14:100352.

4. Horton AA, Dixon SJ. Microplastics: An introduction to environmental transport processes. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water. 2018 Mar; 5(2).

5. Lakhiar IA, Yan H, Zhang J, Wang G, Deng S, Bao R, Zhang C, Syed TN, Wang B, Zhou R, Wang X. Plastic Pollution in Agriculture as a Threat to Food Security, the Ecosystem, and the Environment: An Overview. Agronomy. 2024 Mar;14(3):3. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14030548

6. Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Motta O, Miele Y, Proto A, Montano L. Microplastics in the Environment: Intake through the Food Web, Human Exposure and Toxicological Effects. Toxics. 2021 Sep 16;9(9):224. doi: 10.3390/toxics9090224. PMID: 34564375; PMCID: PMC8473407.

7. Setälä O, Lehtiniemi M, Coppock R, Cole M. Microplastics in marine food webs. In: Microplastic contamination in aquatic environments. Elsevier; 2018. pp. 339-363.

8. Kokarakis J, Kokarakis E, Ladakis E, Petrakakos H. Microplastics and their Impact on the Marine Environment. D021S006R003. 2023.

9. Gray T. Oceans of Plastic: Understanding and Solving a Pollution Problem. CSIRO Publishing; 2022.

10. Ivleva NP. Chemical Analysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Challenges, Advanced Methods, and Perspectives. Chem Rev. 2021 Oct 13;121(19):11886-11936. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00178. Epub 2021 Aug 26. PMID: 34436873.

11. Wang W, Wang J. Investigation of microplastics in aquatic environments: An overview of the methods used, from field sampling to laboratory analysis. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2018 Nov;108:195-202..

12. Mai L, Bao LJ, Shi L, Wong CS, Zeng EY. A review of methods for measuring microplastics in aquatic environments. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018 Apr;25(12):11319-11332. doi: 10.1007/s11356-018-1692-0. Epub 2018 Mar 13. PMID: 29536421.

13. Peng X, Chen M, Chen S, Dasgupta S, Xu H, Ta K, Du M, Li J, Guo Z, Bai S. Microplastics contaminate the deepest part of the world’s ocean. Geochem Perspect Lett. 2018 Jan;9(1):1-5.

14. Issac MN, Kandasubramanian B. Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021 Apr;28(16):19544-19562. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-13184-2. Epub 2021 Mar 2. PMID: 33655475; PMCID: PMC7924819.

15. Yin K, Wang Y, Zhao H, Wang D, Guo M, Mu M, Liu Y, Nie X, Li B, Li J. A comparative review of microplastics and nanoplastics: Toxicity hazards on digestive, reproductive and nervous system. Sci Total Environ. 2021 Oct;774:145758.

16. Brandt J, Bittrich L, Fischer F, Kanaki E, Tagg A, Lenz R, Labrenz M, Brandes E, Fischer D, Eichhorn KJ. High-Throughput Analyses of Microplastic Samples Using Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Spectrometry. Appl Spectrosc. 2020 Sep;74(9):1185-1197. doi: 10.1177/0003702820932926. Epub 2020 Jun 19. PMID: 32436395.

17. Köktürk M, Özgeriş FB, Atamanalp M, Uçar A, Özdemir S, Parlak V, Duyar HA, Alak G. Microplastic-induced oxidative stress response in turbot and potential intake by humans. Drug Chem Toxicol. 2024 May;47(3):296-305. doi: 10.1080/01480545.2023.2168690. Epub 2023 Jan 19. PMID: 36656072.

18. Burgess RM, Ho KT. Microplastics in the aquatic environment-Perspectives on the scope of the problem. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2017 Sep;36(9):2259-2265. doi: 10.1002/etc.3867. PMID: 28843056; PMCID: PMC6166645.

19. Danopoulos E, Stanton T, Ma Y, Horton AA, Chen Q, Levermore JM, Li J, McGoran AR, Lai Y, Nolte S. Insights into technical challenges in the field of microplastic pollution through the lens of early career researchers (ECRs) and a proposed pathway forward. Front Earth Sci. 2023;11:1271547.

20. Harris LST. Marine Microplastic Pollution: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding the Effects on Organisms, Ecosystems, and Policy [D. dissertation]. University of Washington; 2020. Available from: https://www.proquest.com/docview/2492238721/abstract/C2DE2BFAA4A54EA8PQ/1Ma,

21. Ma H, Pu S, Liu S, Bai Y, Mandal S, Xing B. Microplastics in aquatic environments: Toxicity to trigger ecological consequences. Environ Pollut. 2020 Jun;261:114089. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114089. Epub 2020 Feb 1. PMID: 32062100.

22. Anbumani S, Kakkar P. Ecotoxicological effects of microplastics on biota: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018 May;25(15):14373-14396. doi: 10.1007/s11356-018-1999-x. Epub 2018 Apr 21. PMID: 29680884.

23. Carbery M, O'Connor W, Palanisami T. Trophic transfer of microplastics and mixed contaminants in the marine food web and implications for human health. Environ Int. 2018 Jun;115:400-409. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.007. Epub 2018 Apr 10. PMID: 29653694.

24. Bakir A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC. Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ Pollut. 2014 Feb;185:16-23. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007. Epub 2013 Nov 6. PMID: 24212067.

25. Gallo F, Fossi C, Weber R, Santillo D, Sousa J, Ingram I, Nadal A, Romano D. Marine litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive measures. Environ Sci Eur. 2018;30(1):13. doi: 10.1186/s12302-018-0139-z. Epub 2018 Apr 18. PMID: 29721401; PMCID: PMC5918521.

26. Smith M, Love DC, Rochman CM, Neff RA. Microplastics in Seafood and the Implications for Human Health. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2018 Sep;5(3):375-386. doi: 10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z. PMID: 30116998; PMCID: PMC6132564.

27. Walkinshaw C, Lindeque PK, Thompson R, Tolhurst T, Cole M. Microplastics and seafood: lower trophic organisms at highest risk of contamination. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2020 Mar 1;190:110066. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110066. Epub 2019 Dec 15. PMID: 31846861.

28. Zhang Q, Xu EG, Li J, Chen Q, Ma L, Zeng EY, Shi H. A Review of Microplastics in Table Salt, Drinking Water, and Air: Direct Human Exposure. Environ Sci Technol. 2020 Apr 7;54(7):3740-3751. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04535. Epub 2020 Mar 11. PMID: 32119774.

29. Shukla S, Pei Y, Li WG, Pei DS. Toxicological Research on Nano and Microplastics in Environmental Pollution: Current Advances and Future Directions. Aquat Toxicol. 2024 May;270:106894. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2024.106894. Epub 2024 Mar 11. PMID: 38492287.

30. Lai H, Liu X, Qu M. Nanoplastics and Human Health: Hazard Identification and Biointerface. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2022 Apr 11;12(8):1298. doi: 10.3390/nano12081298. PMID: 35458006; PMCID: PMC9026096.

31. Adam V, von Wyl A, Nowack B. Probabilistic environmental risk assessment of microplastics in marine habitats. Aquat Toxicol. 2021 Jan;230:105689. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105689. Epub 2020 Nov 25. PMID: 33302173.

32. Setälä O, Fleming-Lehtinen V, Lehtiniemi M. Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web. Environ Pollut. 2014 Feb;185:77-83. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013. Epub 2013 Nov 9. PMID: 24220023.

33. Prata JC, da Costa JP, Lopes I, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. Environmental exposure to microplastics: An overview on possible human health effects. Sci Total Environ. 2020 Feb 1;702:134455. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455. Epub 2019 Oct 4. PMID: 31733547.

34. Liu Z, Huang Q, Chen L, Li J, Jia H. Is the impact of atmospheric microplastics on human health underestimated? Uncertainty in risk assessment: A case study of urban atmosphere in Xi'an, Northwest China. Sci Total Environ. 2022 Dec 10;851(Pt 2):158167. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158167. Epub 2022 Aug 20. PMID: 35998719.

35. Gouin T. Toward an Improved Understanding of the Ingestion and Trophic Transfer of Microplastic Particles: Critical Review and Implications for Future Research. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2020 May;39(6):1119-1137. doi: 10.1002/etc.4718. PMID: 32223000; PMCID: PMC7383496.

36. Onyena AP, Aniche DC, Ogbolu BO, Rakib MRJ, Uddin J, Walker TR. Governance strategies for mitigating microplastic pollution in the marine environment: A review. Microplastics. 2021 Jan;1(1):15-46.

37. Erni-Cassola G, Dolf R, Burkhardt-Holm P. Microplastics in the Water Column of the Rhine River Near Basel: 22 Months of Sampling. Environ Sci Technol. 2024 Mar 26;58(12):5491-5499. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08364. Epub 2024 Mar 13. PMID: 38478875; PMCID: PMC10976896.

38. Browne MA, Crump P, Niven SJ, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R. Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: sources and sinks. Environ Sci Technol. 2011 Nov 1;45(21):9175-9. doi: 10.1021/es201811s. Epub 2011 Oct 4. PMID: 21894925.

39. Wright SL, Thompson RC, Galloway TS. The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a review. Environ Pollut. 2013 Jul;178:483-92. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031. Epub 2013 Mar 29. PMID: 23545014.

40. Li J, Zhang K, Zhang H. Adsorption of antibiotics on microplastics. Environ Pollut. 2018 Jun;237:460-467. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.050. Epub 2018 Mar 15. PMID: 29510365.

41. Yang W, Jannatun N, Zeng Y, Liu T, Zhang G, Chen C, Li Y. Impacts of microplastics on immunity. Front Toxicol. 2022 Sep 27;4:956885. doi: 10.3389/ftox.2022.956885. PMID: 36238600; PMCID: PMC9552327.

42. Huang W, Song B, Liang J, Niu Q, Zeng G, Shen M, Deng J, Luo Y, Wen X, Zhang Y. Microplastics and associated contaminants in the aquatic environment: A review on their ecotoxicological effects, trophic transfer, and potential impacts to human health. J Hazard Mater. 2021 Mar 5;405:124187. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124187. Epub 2020 Oct 15. PMID: 33153780.

43. Sarkar B, Dissanayake PD, Bolan NS, Dar JY, Kumar M, Haque MN, Mukhopadhyay R, Ramanayaka S, Biswas JK, Tsang DCW, Rinklebe J, Ok YS. Challenges and opportunities in sustainable management of microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment. Environ Res. 2022 May 1;207:112179. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112179. Epub 2021 Oct 5. PMID: 34624271.

44. Sandu C, Takacs E, Suaria G, Borgogno F, Laforsch C, Löder MM, Tweehuysen G, Florea L. Society role in the reduction of plastic pollution. In: Plastics in the Aquatic Environment-Part II: Stakeholders’ Role Against Pollution. Springer; 2020. pp. 39-65.

45. Ghosh S, Sinha JK, Ghosh S, Vashisth K, Han S, Bhaskar R. Microplastics as an emerging threat to the global environment and human health. Sustainability. 2023 Jul;15(14):10821.

46. Menéndez-Pedriza A, Jaumot J. Interaction of Environmental Pollutants with Microplastics: A Critical Review of Sorption Factors, Bioaccumulation and Ecotoxicological Effects. Toxics. 2020 Jun 2;8(2):40. doi: 10.3390/toxics8020040. PMID: 32498316; PMCID: PMC7355763.

47. Cverenkárová K, Valachovičová M, Mackuľak T, Žemlička L, Bírošová L. Microplastics in the Food Chain. Life (Basel). 2021 Dec 6;11(12):1349. doi: 10.3390/life11121349. PMID: 34947879; PMCID: PMC8704590.

48. Au SY, Lee CM, Weinstein JE, van den Hurk P, Klaine SJ. Trophic transfer of microplastics in aquatic ecosystems: Identifying critical research needs. Integr Environ Assess Manag. 2017 May;13(3):505-509. doi: 10.1002/ieam.1907. PMID: 28440939.

49. Martin J, Lusher A, Thompson RC, Morley A. The Deposition and Accumulation of Microplastics in Marine Sediments and Bottom Water from the Irish Continental Shelf. Sci Rep. 2017 Sep 7;7(1):10772. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-11079-2. PMID: 28883417; PMCID: PMC5589889.

50. Yen LP, Yong CLX, Todd PA. The effect of coral colony morphology, coral surface condition, particle size, and seeding point on the trapping and deposition of microplastics. Sci Total Environ. 2024 Apr 15;921:171077. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171077. Epub 2024 Feb 19. PMID: 38382597.

51. Liu H, Sun K, Liu X, Yao R, Cao W, Zhang L, Wang X. Spatial and temporal distributions of microplastics and their macroscopic relationship with algal blooms in Chaohu Lake, China. J Contam Hydrol. 2022 Jun;248:104028. doi: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2022.104028. Epub 2022 May 24. PMID: 35640420.

52. Harrison JP, Schratzberger M, Sapp M, Osborn AM. Rapid bacterial colonization of low-density polyethylene microplastics in coastal sediment microcosms. BMC Microbiol. 2014 Sep 23;14:232. doi: 10.1186/s12866-014-0232-4. PMID: 25245856; PMCID: PMC4177575.

53. Yee MS, Hii LW, Looi CK, Lim WM, Wong SF, Kok YY, Tan BK, Wong CY, Leong CO. Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Human Health. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2021 Feb 16;11(2):496. doi: 10.3390/nano11020496. PMID: 33669327; PMCID: PMC7920297.

54. Prata JC. Airborne microplastics: Consequences to human health? Environ Pollut. 2018 Mar;234:115-126. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.043. Epub 2017 Dec 21. PMID: 29172041.

55. Sun A, Wang WX. Human exposure to microplastics and its associated health risks. Environ Health. 2023 Sep;1(3):139-149.

56. Wu P, Lin S, Cao G, Wu J, Jin H, Wang C, Wong MH, Yang Z, Cai Z. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity of microplastics in the human body and health implications. J Hazard Mater. 2022 Sep 5;437:129361. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129361. Epub 2022 Jun 16. PMID: 35749897.

記事について

この記事を引用する

Madiraju SVH, Pamula ASP, Darsi BH. Theoretical Review on Microplastic Pollution: A Multifaceted Threat to Marine Ecosystems, Human Health, and Environment. IgMin Res. Jun 25, 2024; 2(6): 460-468. IgMin ID: igmin203; DOI:10.61927/igmin203; Available at: igmin.link/p203

• DOI10.61927/igmin203

23 May, 2024

受け取った

24 Jun, 2024

受け入れられた

25 Jun, 2024

発行された

この記事を共有する

次のリンクを共有した人は、このコンテンツを読むことができます:

共有リンクを取得する

トピックス

Ecosystem Science Toxicology